- Department of Neurosurgery, Desert Regional Medical Center, Palm Springs, California, United States.
- School of Medicine, University of California Riverside, Riverside, California, United States.
- College of Osteopathic Medicine, Kansas City University of Medicine and Biosciences, Kansas City, Missouri, United States.
- Department of Medical Research, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States.
- Department of Podiatry, Beaumont Hospital, Farmington Hills, Michigan, United States.
- Grossman School of Medicine, New York University, New York, United States.
Correspondence Address:
Brian Fiani
Grossman School of Medicine, New York University, New York, United States.
DOI:10.25259/SNI_596_2020
Copyright: © 2020 Surgical Neurology International This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial-Share Alike 4.0 License, which allows others to remix, tweak, and build upon the work non-commercially, as long as the author is credited and the new creations are licensed under the identical terms.How to cite this article: Brian Fiani1, Ryan Arthur Figueras2, Frank De Stefano3, Neha Gautam4, Asif Khan5, Marisol Soula6. Nonmissile penetrating spinal injuries: Mechanisms, expectations, and management. 25-Nov-2020;11:406
How to cite this URL: Brian Fiani1, Ryan Arthur Figueras2, Frank De Stefano3, Neha Gautam4, Asif Khan5, Marisol Soula6. Nonmissile penetrating spinal injuries: Mechanisms, expectations, and management. 25-Nov-2020;11:406. Available from: https://surgicalneurologyint.com/surgicalint-articles/10411/
Abstract
Background: Nonmissile penetrating spinal injury (NMPSI) is an uncommon form of traumatic injury to the spine. Here, we present a comprehensive and contemporary literature review that provides insight into NMPSI-type injuries, their mechanisms, clinical practice, management, and expectations.
Methods: An extensive review of the published literature was conducted in PubMed, OVID Medline, and EMBASE journals for studies of nonmissile penetrating spine injuries. Terms for search included NMPSI and nonmissile penetrating spinal cord injury. No date restrictions were used.
Results: The search yielded only 17 related articles. Cross-checking of articles was conducted to exclude duplicate articles. The 17 articles were screened for their full text and English language availability. We finalized those articles pertaining to the topic.
Conclusion: The mechanism of injury in NMPSI occurs in two different stages. Immediate injury is caused by direct damage to the neurological structures. The delayed injury response is caused by damage to the spinal vasculature and activated immune response pathways. Computed tomography (CT) angiograms or formal diagnostic angiograms are indicated to identify vascular injury or development of pseudoaneurysm and can be performed both preoperatively and postoperatively. Surgically, decompressive procedures include laminectomies and hemilaminectomies. Dural exploration may be indicated if a cerebrospinal fluid leak with fistula develops from dural puncture. Further research and technologies are being developed to provide patients who have suffered NMPSI with more resources for a better quality of life.
Keywords: Neurotrauma, Nonmissile penetrating spinal injury, Nonmissile, Penetrating spinal injury
INTRODUCTION
Nonmissile penetrating spinal injury (NMPSI) is an uncommon form of traumatic injury to the spine, particularly rare in North America.[
The vast majority of spinal injuries in North America are due to either motor vehicle accidents or falls.[
MECHANISM OF INJURY
Penetrating wounds occur when an object pierces the body in a traumatic fashion that can destroy, disrupt, or contuse the tissue it penetrates and adjacent areas.[
Injuries involving knives usually produce limited injury because knives are classified as low-velocity projectiles. Such low-velocity projectiles will typically cause damage confined to tissues solely within the path of the penetrating object. In contrast, bullet wounds caused by air-powered pellet guns and handguns are classified as medium velocity. These medium-velocity wounds are distinct from low-velocity types in that they cause cavitation of the tissues and extend the area of tissue damage beyond the path of the penetrating object through shock waves.[
Concerning penetrating trauma wounds, the physics of the energy exchange impacts the degree of tissue damage.[
The most commonly occurring NMPSIs are stab wounds of the back directed toward the thoracic spine (up to 63% of cases), the cervical spine (up to 30% of cases), or the lumbar region (6.7% of cases).[
NEUROLOGICAL SEQUELAE
Because NMPSI represents such a small subset of overall spinal injury, guidelines for the management of these patients and the resulting neurological sequelae are elusive. The possible outcomes and neurological deficits observed in patients are vast, ranging from asymptomatic dural tear to injuries of the nerve root, and patients have been observed to experience symptoms from neurapraxia to neurotmesis, with complete SCI being the most detrimental outcome from NMPSI.
Historically, the neurological sequelae for patients with sustained NMPSI are optimistic. According to a 1991 institutional study, a good prognosis has been reported in 50–60% of NMPSI cases, with surgical intervention demonstrating improved neurological function in 7 out of 9 cases.[
The previous studies have shown that 40% of patients with partial spinal cord injuries were able to recover to functional capacity and able to return to previous places of employment, and an additional 57% demonstrated significant recovery, which is defined by the recovery of their physical capacity which allowed them to be gainfully employed.[
INDICATIONS FOR ANGIOGRAM
For patients that present with NMPSI, an initial and immediate concern should be the integrity of the vasculature in the spinal region, especially the vertebral arteries. CT angiography has been proven to be a fast, safe, and reliable noninvasive method to assess patients with penetrating neck traumas. It has a specificity of about 100% and sensitivity of 90% for identifying lesions of vascular structures in the neck region.[
Because vascular injuries related to NMPSI are most common in the cervical spine as opposed to thoracic or lumbar spine (comprising up to 40% of penetrating neck traumas), clinicians should observe the patient for signs that are suggestive of vascular injury.[
In some cases of penetrating traumas, such as CSF leaks, a mandatory exploratory surgery is carefully performed to determine the precise injuries of the patient and to surgically correct any concerns such as performing primary dural closure of a CSF leak.[
After open neurovascular surgery or endovascular treatment, there are concerns such as incomplete treatment of vascular injury, delayed cerebral infarcts, or cerebral hemorrhage.[
GENERAL SURGICAL GUIDELINES
The benefit of surgical exploration versus nonsurgical management of NMPSI is a debated topic. Surgical consideration is warranted for progressive neurologic deficits, evidence of RFB, or prolonged CSF leakage.[
Advances in minimally invasive retrieval approaches of a RFB with the use of fluoroscopy have shown promise.[
Standard antibiotic prophylaxis recommendations specifically for NMPSI have not been reported. One report utilized an empiric antibiotic regimen recommended for open fracture protocols. Antibiotics should be given within 4 h of presentation and no later than 48–72 h. Evidence of spinal canal penetration warrants administration of third-generation cephalosporins for central nervous system coverage given concern for meningitis.[
NEW TECHNOLOGY AND RESEARCH FOR RECOVERY
NMPSI has the potential to cause permanent neurological deficits from SCI. In the event of SCI, the communication within the nervous system is disrupted, leading to the loss of essential neurological functions. With technological advancements and growth in innovation, much research focus is being placed on the recovery, or at least improving the functionality, of SCI patients. University of California Los Angeles researchers have created an innovative technique to increase the effective impulse potential through translational perspectives both in the treatment and in the diagnostics of spinal injuries.[
The utilization of electric stimulation is an innovative technique allowing patients with spinal injury to restore limb functionality.[
The amplitude and frequency variations that were provided with the multielectrode positioning also played a crucial role in effectiveness.[
Targeted spinal cord stimulation has shown progress with utilization of neurotechnology to facilitate voluntary control of walking in individuals who sustained a SCI status post-NMPSI.[
CONCLUSION
NMPSI is a devastating traumatic injury that occurs rarely but can have lasting implications. It is important for neurologists and neurosurgeons to have proper understanding of the mechanism of injury, the potential neurological sequelae, and the most recent management guidelines. Workup includes CT angiography or formal diagnostic angiogram either preoperatively or both preoperative and postoperatively. Multielectrode pulse generators that potentiate impulse signals to the spinal cord have shown dramatic advances in NMPSCI patients. However, there is a significant lack of data regarding outcomes and expectations. Likewise, literature on surgical intervention techniques is lacking uniformity and therefore treatment is individualized to each patient. Physician researchers are working on advanced techniques to perfect a standardization of care for NMPSI.
Declaration of patient consent
Patient’s consent not required as patients identity is not disclosed or compromised.
Financial support and sponsorship
Nil.
Conflicts of interest
There are no conflicts of interest.
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